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Tiffany Li, awarded Shared 1st Prize in Chadwick School, CA

(Grade 10)

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), established in the aftermath of the Second World War, emerged as a beacon of hope for a world recovering from the horrors of war and genocide. Adopted in 1948, this landmark document outlines the fundamental rights every individual deserves. The geopolitical context of the time, especially the emergence of the United Nations, significantly influenced the negotiations that led to the UDHR’s creation. In their contextual analysis of the post-Second World War international order, Mazower (2009) and Moyn (2014) stress the crucial need for a renewed commitment to human rights in the face of global upheaval. They specifically highlight how the devastation of the Second World War spurred global leaders to recognize the paramount importance of individual rights in preventing genocide.

Eleanor Roosevelt, a distinguished American diplomat and former First Lady, chaired the UDHR’s drafting committee, playing a pivotal role in shaping the document (Beitz; Glendon). Her insight into the necessity of universal human rights contributes significantly to the UDHR’s intellectual underpinnings. The creation of the UDHR stemmed from a vision to promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, evident in proposals for lasting world peace documented between 1941 and 1946 (Meade). However, challenges arose from the UN Charter, which endorsed human rights promotion but prohibited UN intervention in matters within the “domestic jurisdiction of any state” (Normand and Zaidi, 1945). Following the UN Charter’s implementation, the “international bill of rights” was created in November 1945 (Normand and Zaidi). This led to the establishment of the Economic and Social Council in February 1946, which founded a temporary Commission on Human Rights. Chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, the commission included members from various countries and aimed to lay the groundwork for the International Bill of Rights (Sun). Collaboratively, the commission proposed preparatory measures for the development of a morally compelling declaration, envisioning it as a cornerstone for global peace (Duan). This marked the commencement of the drafting process of the declaration. Despite its achievements, the UDHR faces challenges related to cultural relativism and the evolving global landscape. To effectively promote human rights universally, aspects require reevaluation and adaptation by the international community. This essay, 75 years after the UDHR’s inception, will assess its efficacy by examining achievements, delving into limitations through case studies, and considering the possible necessity for revision in a world marked by persistent challenges.

Mazower, Mark. No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations. Edited by Mark Mazower, Princeton University Press, 2009.
Moyn, Samuel. “A Powerless Companion: Human Rights in the Age of Neoliberalism.” Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 77, no. 4, 2015, pp. 147-169. Duke Law Scholarship Repository, https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/lcp/vol77/iss4/7.
Beitz, Charles R. The Idea of Human Rights. OUP Oxford, 2009.
Glendon, Mary Ann. A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Random House Publishing Group, 2001.
Fort George G. Meade: Army Information School, 1946. “Chapter IX.” Page 36.
Normand, Roger, and Sarah Zaidi. Human Rights at the UN: The Political History of Universal Justice. Indiana University Press, 2008.
Duan, F. (2017). 

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Modern History of Human Rights. Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.3066882.
P. Sun et al. “P. C. Chang’s Main Ideas in Drafting the UDHR.” (2018): 181-263. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8370-9_6.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights stands as a monumental achievement in advancing global human rights, with its profound impact evident across diverse regions and sectors. Undoubtedly, it catalyzed the development of international law, inspiring the creation of nine core human rights treaties that laid a foundation for legal mechanisms to hold nations accountable (Helander). It has been particularly noteworthy in Asia, shaping China’s human rights stance and economic reforms, evident in the signing of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1998. It further influenced India’s Right to Education Act and contributed to constitutional provisions in post-World War II Japan (Yadav; Kessel). In the African continent, the end of apartheid in South Africa and Nigeria’s transition to democracy were guided by UDHR principles, while Kenya’s 2010 constitution mirrors its commitment to equality and fair trials (Baderin). Europe also witnessed an impact, reflected in Germany’s post-World War II constitution, the Basic Law, and the incorporation of UDHR principles in the Human Rights Act of the United Kingdom. Moreover, the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and ongoing research in Finland further underscore its global reach (Tuomisaari). The evolution of the nine core human rights treaties strategically targets distinct areas of rights violations, forming a strong foundation for global cooperation. Conventions like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) delve into specific dimensions of human rights. Beyond legal frameworks, the UDHR played a pivotal role in shaping the post-war international order by providing universal principles to prevent atrocities and inspiring the development of 50 global human rights organizations. These principles, leveraged by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, fostered a culture of respect for human dignity, countering unchecked state power. Through this, it endures as a reference point in international diplomacy, allowing nations to condemn human rights violations and exert pressure on violators. From the Civil Rights Movement in the United States to the fight against apartheid in South Africa, activists continue to draw inspiration from its enduring principles to articulate demands for justice, equality, and freedom. In essence, the UDHR’s successes and contributions extend far beyond its drafting in 1948, shaping ongoing efforts to create a world where the dignity of every individual is safeguarded.

Despite its achievements, the UDHR faces challenges due to cultural relativism, impacting its effectiveness in international influence (Roose). Cultural relativism, the idea that different cultures have different moral standards, has posed a significant obstacle. Some nations have hesitated to fully embrace the universal principles outlined in the UDHR, citing cultural differences and sovereignty concerns (Brown). During the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948, several nations, including the Soviet Union, Ukraine, Belarus, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Saudi Arabia, either abstained or refrained.

Baderin, M., & Ssenyonjo, M. (2010). Development of International Human Rights Law Before and after the UDHR. , 19-44. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315589404-8.
M. Halme-Tuomisaari et al. “Chapter Two. Emergence Of The Human Rights Phenomenon In Finland.” (2010). https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004184459.i-276.12.
E. Roose et al. “2001 ) and The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting and Intent.” (2002). https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.37-1194.
E. Helander et al. “Human Rights and Human Wrongs.” (2008): 213-222. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230584303_11.
I. V. Kessel et al. “”Beyond Our Wildest Dreams”: The United Democratic Front and the Transformation of South Africa.” (2000). https://doi.org/10.2307/486130.
Michael F. Brown et al. “Cultural Relativism 2.0.” Current Anthropology, 49 (2008): 363 – 383. https://doi.org/10.1086/529261. Yadav, D. (2012). Right to Education in India: A Study. India Law eJournal. https://doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.2014933.

from active participation, citing concerns rooted in political ideologies and cultural or religious considerations (Duan). Geopolitical tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War marked the drafting process. Eleanor Roosevelt’s significant role in the subcommittee, her commitment to U.S. interests, and the ideological differences between the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc influenced the UDHR’s final form. The resulting draft emphasized political and civil rights over economic and social rights, reflecting a hierarchy aligned with Western values. Despite opposition, the UDHR was adopted as a shared commitment, underscoring the challenge of achieving cultural sensitivity and inclusivity in a document addressing universal human rights.

The intricate development of modern China, deeply intertwined with its ancient civilization, necessitates a cultural relativist perspective, acknowledging the impact of historical and cultural nuances on its identity. Examining facets like national identity, family structures, and individual-society relationships highlights the importance of respecting cultural differences (Dissanayake). China’s government, grounding its restrictions on certain freedoms in Confucian philosophy for social harmony, exemplifies this perspective. China’s response to COVID-19, guided by Confucian ideals (Yang; Bing-Quan), places a premium on collective well-being over individual liberties, evident in measures like lockdowns and contact tracing. This stands in contrast to Western societies and their concerns about potential UDHR Article 3 violations, emphasizing the right to “life, liberty, and security” and revealing cultural differences in addressing global challenges. Governments, including China’s, implementing strict measures may compromise individual liberties for societal protection, underscoring the limitations of universally applying all UDHR articles. China’s effective pandemic management, with fewer cases relative to its population, showcases the benefits of cultural relativism tailored to deeply rooted values (Lai). This situation serves as a nuanced exploration of the intricate interplay between universal human rights principles and cultural considerations. Historically, reservations about the UDHR have been voiced by nations like the Soviet Union, its allies, and Saudi Arabia, citing conflicts with their ideologies (Duan). The U.S., championing individualism, emphasized political and civil rights, whereas the USSR prioritized collective spirit, viewing individualism as biased toward Western democracy (Dumont; Hwang). This context highlights the persistent tension between universal human rights and cultural differences, underscoring the necessity for diverse perspectives in the global discourse on human rights.

Islamic law calls for cultural relativism due to its historical grounding, influencing the legal systems and values of more than a billion people globally. In the Pakistan Journal of Gender Studies, Manzoor explores their intricate relationship, emphasizing that while the UDHR is a foundational document in international human rights law, Islamic law has served as an ideal legal system for over 1,400 years, influencing countless Muslim countries.

Duan, F. (2017). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Modern History of Human Rights. Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.3066882.
S. Lai et al. “Effect of non-pharmaceutical interventions to contain COVID-19 in China.” Nature, 585 (2020): 410 – 413. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2293-x.
Ishini Samadhi Dissanayake et al. “HAPPINESS THROUGH THE CONFUCIUS’S PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY.” Proceedings of The Third International Scientific Conference “Happiness and Contemporary Society” (2022). https://doi.org/10.31108/7.2022.13.
Xu Bing-quan et al. “The Transcendence of Confucius’ Aesthetics Thought.” Journal of Qiqihar University (2007).
L. Dumont et al. “Essays on individualism : modern ideology in anthropological perspective.” (1988). https://doi.org/10.2307/2072754.
K. Hwang et al. “Morality (East and West): Cultural Concerns.” (2001): 10039-10043. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.64005-9.
Zi-feng Yang et al. “Epidemics trend of COVID-19 in China under public health interventions.” Journal of Thoracic Disease, 12 (2020): 165 – 174. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd.2020.02.64. Manzoor, A., Ali, S., & Nadeemullah, M. (2010). Universal Declaration Of Human Rights VS. Human Rights In Islam. , 3, 11-21. https://doi.org/10.46568/pjgs.v3i1.365.

The complexity of this interaction is underscored by varying perspectives on this relationship (Mubarak). Sensitivity is crucial in discussing this matter, acknowledging diverse interpretations of both Islamic law and human rights within different individuals and communities (Govern). Specific instances, such as freedom of speech and gender equality, highlight potential disparities. For instance, while the UDHR protects freedom of expression, some interpretations of Islamic law may impose restrictions on speech deemed blasphemous or offensive (Abdullah). Addressing this requires promoting open dialogue while respecting cultural and religious sensitivities. Similarly, the UDHR’s emphasis on gender equality may differ from conservative interpretations of Islamic law in certain contexts, particularly concerning gender roles and family law (Ha-Redeye). To foster equality, engaging in dialogue about interpretations of Islamic teachings that support gender equality and recognizing the diversity of perspectives within the Muslim community is crucial.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights requires updating due to its insufficient coverage of pressing contemporary issues, including the rights of LGBTQ individuals, the prosecution of war crimes, deficiencies in education standards, and the ethical implications of artificial intelligence.

The acknowledgment of LGBTQ+ rights as human rights has gained prominence recently, reflecting a broader societal shift toward inclusivity and acceptance. Key issues, such as marriage equality, gender identity, and protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation, have become central in human rights discussions. However, the existing language in documents like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) falls short of adequately safeguarding the LGBTQ+ community from discrimination and violence (Elze). Proposing revisions to the UDHR aligns it with contemporary values, fostering a more equitable global society. Studies reveal alarming LGBTQ+ statistics, with significant youth bullying and harassment reported in schools, impacting mental health and academic performance (Wyatt). The Williams Institute notes higher rates of homelessness and unemployment, emphasizing the UDHR’s potential role in reinforcing legal protections (Shaw). Amending specific articles, such as Article 2, to address sexual orientation and gender identity explicitly, and editing Article 16 to recognize and protect LGBTQ+ relationships within cultural nuances, positions the UDHR as a powerful instrument for fostering inclusivity and safeguarding LGBTQ+ rights, contributing to a more compassionate global society.

The impact of artificial intelligence on contemporary society is unparalleled, yet the UDHR lacks specific articles addressing this rapidly evolving technological landscape. Rapid advancement

Abdulkadir Mubarak et al. “Shari’a and human rights: The challenges ahead.” Kom: Časopis za Religijske Nauke, 2 (2013): 17-43. https://doi.org/10.5937/KOM1301017M.
O. Ha-Redeye et al. “The Role of Islamic Shari’ah in Protecting Women’s Rights.” Social Science Research Network (2009).
Kevin H. Govern et al. “Right to Peace or Human Rights Per Se in Islamic States.” Philosophy of Religion eJournal (2013).
Farooq Abdullah et al. “آزادی اظہار کی حدود قیود:مسئلہ عصمتِ انبیاء اور اقوام متحدہ.” Journal of Islamic and Religious Studies (2020). https://doi.org/10.36476/jirs.3:2.12.2018.04.
D. Elze et al. “The Lives of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People: A Trauma-Informed and Human Rights Perspective.” Trauma and Human Rights (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16395-2_8.
Ronan, Wyatt. “2021 Officially Becomes Worst Year in Recent History for LGBTQ State Legislative Attacks as Unprecedented Number of States Enact Record-Shattering Number of Anti-LGBTQ Measures Into Law.” Human Rights Campaign, 7 May 2021, https://www.hrc.org/press-releases/2021-officially-becomes-worst-year-in-recent-history-for-lgbtq. Accessed 10 December 2023.
Shaw, Ari. “Violence and Law Enforcement Interactions with LGBT People in the US.” Williams Institute, 2020, https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/violence-law-lgbt-us/. Accessed 10 December 2023.

poses challenges and opportunities that directly impact fundamental human rights; issues such as privacy infringement, algorithmic bias, and the potential for mass surveillance demand attention to safeguard individuals against unwarranted intrusions. This omission is problematic given the ethical and human rights implications associated with AI systems. “Ethics of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics” published in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2019), emphasizes the pressing need to address the ethical dimensions of AI development and deployment. Additionally, “Artificial Intelligence and the End of Work” by Carl Benedikt Frey in the Harvard Data Science Review (2020) highlights the potential socioeconomic consequences of AI, raising concerns about job displacement and economic inequalities. Given the profound influence of AI on individual rights, privacy, and socio-economic structures, the absence of dedicated articles in the UDHR underscores the imperative to revisit and update this foundational document to ensure its relevance in an era dominated by technological advancements. By explicitly acknowledging AI-related challenges in the UDHR, there is an opportunity to establish ethical standards that uphold human dignity, protect privacy, and ensure fair and equitable access to the benefits of technological progress for all.

The absence of specific articles addressing wartime crimes in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) underscores a significant gap, necessitating an urgent update to comprehensively address crimes during war and reinforce its role in preventing and responding to global violence. Armed conflicts, as reported in a 2015 study in the “British Medical Journal,” resulted in an estimated 5.4 million deaths globally between 1990 and 2015. Krause further explores the long-term social and economic costs, emphasizing the profound impact of displacement, education disruption, and economic decline. The evident toll of violence underscores the need for a nuanced approach within the UDHR, aiming to hold perpetrators accountable and protect the rights of those affected. Advocacy, such as David Luban’s work in the Georgetown Law Journal, supports a more robust legal framework to address wartime crimes within international human rights instruments. Updating the UDHR to explicitly encompass wartime crimes is imperative, aligning it with contemporary scholarship and reinforcing its role as a powerful tool in preventing and responding to global violence. With Deputy Secretary-General Amina J. Mohammed’s acknowledgment of the highest number of violent conflicts since World War II, an arrest warrant for Vladimir Putin, and the 50th anniversary of the Pinochet dictatorship, the urgency to update the UDHR is paramount in addressing evolving challenges, strengthening accountability, and safeguarding human rights globally.

To effectively address the challenges faced by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), thoughtful consideration of potential revisions is crucial, as advocated (Baxi). One promising avenue involves opening the document for countries to contribute context-specific elements, thereby fostering a more inclusive and culturally sensitive framework.

Majer, Peter, et al. “Ethics of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 30 April 2020, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ai/. Accessed 10 December 2023. Frey, Carl. “Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne on how AI benefits lower-skilled workers.” The Economist, 18 September 2023, https://www.economist.com/by-invitation/2023/09/18/carl-benedikt-frey-and-michael-osborne-on-how-ai-benefits-lower-skilled-workers. Accessed 10 December 2023. Murray C J L, King G, Lopez A D, Tomijima N, Krug E G. Armed conflict as a public health problem British Medical Journal; https://www.bmj.com/content/324/7333/346 324.7333.346 Krause, Ulrike, and Nadine Segadlo. “Conflict, Displacement … and Peace? A Critical Review of Research Debates.” Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 40, no. 3, September 2021, pp. 271–292. Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1093/rsq/hdab004.U. Baxi et al. “Market Fundamentalisms: Business Ethics at the Altar of Human Rights.” Human Rights Law Review, 5 (2005): 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1093/HRLREV/NGI001

This approach allows for a new drafting period, accommodating diverse global perspectives and addressing the evolving nature of societal values. Critiques of cultural relativism often hinder universal acceptance, with different cultures resisting certain aspects of the UDHR. By involving representatives from all countries in a collaborative effort to update the UDHR, a more inclusive framework can be fostered. This collaborative process becomes imperative in light of contemporary issues such as LGBTQ+ rights, education, war crimes, and artificial intelligence, suggesting the pressing need for a redraft (Adjami). It ensures a comprehensive articulation of human rights principles that not only reflects cultural diversity but also effectively addresses the complex challenges of the modern world. This proactive approach reaffirms the international community’s commitment to upholding human dignity and ensures the continued adaptability of the UDHR to the ever-changing landscape of global concerns.

In conclusion, the UDHR has undeniably played a pivotal role in shaping the discourse on human rights since its adoption in 1948. While it has made significant contributions, challenges such as cultural relativism, an ever-changing world, and varying levels of international commitment remain. To ensure the continued relevance and effectiveness of the UDHR, a more inclusive and adaptable approach may be necessary. The ongoing debate surrounding specific articles and principles underscores the need for continual discussion and reflection on the evolving nature of human rights. As we navigate the complexities of the 21st century, the principles embedded in the UDHR offer a moral compass for shaping international discourse, policy-making, and collective efforts to ensure a just and equitable global society. Thus, recognizing and upholding the contemporary significance of the UDHR is paramount in fostering a world where human rights are not only protected but adapted to meet the evolving needs of humanity.

Mirna Adjami et al. “The Scope and Content of Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” Refugee Survey Quarterly, 27 (2008): 93-109. https://doi.org/10.1093/RSQ/HDN047.

Abdulkadir Mubarak et al. “Shari’a and human rights: The challenges ahead.” Kom: Časopis za Religijske Nauke, 2 (2013): 17-43. https://doi.org/10.5937/KOM1301017M.Beitz, Charles R. The Idea of Human Rights. OUP Oxford, 2009.

D. Elze et al. “The Lives of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People: A Trauma-Informed and Human Rights Perspective.” Trauma and Human Rights (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16395-2_8.

Duan, F. (2017). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Modern History of Human Rights. Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.3066882.

E. Roose et al. “2001 ) and The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting and Intent.” (2002). https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.37-1194.

E. Helander et al. “Human Rights and Human Wrongs.” (2008): 213-222. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230584303_11.

Farooq Abdullah et al. “آزادی اظہار کی حدود قیود:مسئلہ عصمتِ انبیاء اور اقوام متحدہ.” Journal of Islamic and Religious Studies (2020). https://doi.org/10.36476/jirs.3:2.12.2018.04.

Fort George G. Meade: Army Information School, 1946. “Chapter IX.” Page 36.

Frey, Carl. “Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne on how AI benefits lower-skilled workers.” The Economist, 18 September 2023, https://www.economist.com/by-invitation/2023/09/18/carl-benedikt-frey-and-michael-osborne-on-how-ai-benefits-lower-skilled-workers. Accessed 10 December 2023.

Glendon, Mary Ann. A world made new: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Random House Publishing Group, 2001.

Ishini Samadhi Dissanayake et al. “HAPPINESS THROUGH THE CONFUCIUS’S PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY.” Proceedings of The Third International Scientific Conference “Happiness and Contemporary Society” (2022). https://doi.org/10.31108/7.2022.13.

I. V. Kessel et al. “Beyond Our Wildest Dreams”: The United Democratic Front and the Transformation of South Africa.” (2000). https://doi.org/10.2307/486130.

K. Hwang et al. “Morality (East and West): Cultural Concerns.” (2001): 10039-10043. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.64005-9.

Kevin H. Govern et al. “Right to Peace or Human Rights Per Se in Islamic States.” Philosophy of Religion eJournal (2013).

Krause, Ulrike, and Nadine Segadlo. “Conflict, Displacement … and Peace? A Critical Review of Research Debates.” Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 40, no. 3, September 2021, pp. 271–292. Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1093/rsq/hdab004.

L. Dumont et al. “Essays on Individualism: modern ideology in anthropological perspective.” (1988). https://doi.org/10.2307/2072754.

Majer, Peter, et al. “Ethics of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 30 April 2020, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ai/. Accessed 10 December 2023.

Manzoor, A., Ali, S., & Nadeemullah, M. (2010). Universal Declaration Of Human Rights VS. Human Rights In Islam. , 3, 11-21. https://doi.org/10.46568/pjgs.v3i1.365.

Mazower, Mark. No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations. Edited by Mark Mazower, Princeton University Press, 2009.

Michael F. Brown et al. “Cultural Relativism 2.0.” Current Anthropology, 49 (2008): 363 – 383. https://doi.org/10.1086/529261.

Mirna Adjami et al. “The Scope and Content of Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” Refugee Survey Quarterly, 27 (2008): 93-109. https://doi.org/10.1093/RSQ/HDN047.

Moyn, Samuel. “A Powerless Companion: Human Rights in the Age of Neoliberalism.” Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 77, no. 4, 2015, pp. 147-169. Duke Law Scholarship Repository, https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/lcp/vol77/iss4/7.

M. Halme-Tuomisaari et al. “Chapter Two. Emergence Of The Human Rights Phenomenon In Finland.” (2010). https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004184459.i-276.12.

Normand, Roger, and Sarah Zaidi. Human Rights at the UN: The Political History of Universal Justice. Indiana University Press, 2008.

Murray C J L, King G, Lopez A D, Tomijima N, Krug E G. Armed conflict as a public health problem British Medical Journal; https://www.bmj.com/content/324/7333/346 324.7333.346

O. Ha-Redeye et al. “The Role of Islamic Shari’ah in Protecting Women’s Rights.” Social Science Research Network (2009).

P. Sun et al. “P. C. Chang’s Main Ideas in Drafting the UDHR.” (2018): 181-263. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8370-9_6.

Ronan, Wyatt. “2021 Officially Becomes Worst Year in Recent History for LGBTQ State Legislative Attacks as Unprecedented Number of States Enact Record-Shattering Number of Anti-LGBTQ Measures Into Law.” Human Rights Campaign, 7 May 2021, https://www.hrc.org/press-releases/2021-officially-becomes-worst-year-in-recent-history-for-lgbtq. Accessed 10 December 2023.

Shaw, Ari. “Violence and Law Enforcement Interactions with LGBT People in the US.” Williams Institute, 2020, https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/violence-law-lgbt-us/. Accessed 10 December 2023.

S. Lai et al. “Effect of non-pharmaceutical interventions to contain COVID-19 in China.” Nature, 585 (2020): 410 – 413. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2293-x.

U. Baxi et al. “Market Fundamentalisms: Business Ethics at the Altar of Human Rights.” Human Rights Law Review, 5 (2005): 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1093/HRLREV/NGI001.

Xu Bing-quan et al. “The Transcendence of Confucius’ Aesthetics Thought.” Journal of Qiqihar University (2007).

Yadav, D. (2012). Right to Education in India: A Study. India Law eJournal. https://doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.2014933.

Zi-feng Yang et al. “Modified SEIR and AI prediction of the epidemic trend of COVID-19 in China under public health interventions.” Journal of Thoracic Disease, 12 (2020): 165 – 174. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd.2020.02.64.